Cost of automobiles and dependence on foreign oil

Nearly 1 million people have died in motor vehicle crashes in the last 25 years in the U.S. In 2014, about 90 people died every day in car crashes. AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 2015  - 2015 Traffic Safety Culture Index

The average fuel efficiency of today's U.S. vehicle fleet has increased just 3.6 MPG since the days of the Ford Model T. Fuel efficiency has barely increased since 1991. Sivak, M., and Schoettle, B., 2015  - Fuel Efficiency of Vehicles on US Roads: 1923–2016, Energy Policy, 37, 3168-3170

In 2014, congestion caused 6.9 billion hours of travel delay and 3.1 billion gallons of wasted fuel, equaling a cost of more than $160 billion. Schrank, D. et al., 2015  - 2015 Urban Mobility Scorecard

One mile of roadway planned through Golden Gate Park is 1,283 times more expensive to San Franciscans than one mile of protected bike lane. San Francisco Bicycle Coalition  - No, protected bike lanes are probably not too expensive for your city to build

The US is responsible for a quarter of global oil consumption. The transportation sector accounts for two-thirds of this. US Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2007  - in Jacobson, S., and D. King, 2009, Measuring the potential for automobile fuel savings in the US: The impact of obesity, Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 14, 6-13

Cost of inactivity, overweight, and obesity

Bicycling generates $137 million annually in economic benefits to Northwest Arkansas. “While the energy generated by trails and paved paths is palpable across Northwest Arkansas, these findings validate cycling as a regional economic engine that supports local businesses, attracts tourists and builds healthier communities,” said Tom Walton, Home Region Program Committee chair.
Walton Family Foundation, 2018  - Bicycling Provides $137 Million in Economic Benefits to Northwest Arkansas.

If cycling participation increased enough to reduce obesity by about 3%, national medical expenditures could be reduced by $6 billion. Rashad, I., 2008  - Cycling: An increasingly untouched source of physical and mental health, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series, 12929

The annual cost of obesity to employers ranges from $175 for every overweight male employee to $2,485 for every grade-II (BMI 30-40) obese female. Finkelstein, E., et al., 2005  - The costs of obesity among full-time employees, American Journal of Health Promotion, 20, 45-51

The annual individual medical cost of inactivity ($622) is more than 2 ½ times the annual cost per user of bike and pedestrian trails ($235). Wang, G., et al., 2004  - Cost analysis of the built environment: The case of bike and pedestrian trails in Lincoln, Neb, American Journal of Public Health, 94, 549-53

Economic benefits of bicycling facilities and transportation

The Headwaters Economics Trails Benefits Library is a collection of studies on the positive impacts of trails, especially in small or medium-sized towns and rural areas. The library is searchable by type of benefit, use, year, and region.
Headwaters Economics Trail Benefits Library  - Browse

New research from Portland State University finds that proximity to a network of high-quality bike facilities such as protected bike lanes, buffered bike lanes, and bike boulevards, is associated with an increase in property values.
Liu, J., Shi, W., 2016  - Impact of Bike Facilities on Residential Property Prices

The Urban Land Institute recently published a series of findings linking economic development with bicycling in the U.S. and globally. For example, the Indianapolis Cultural Trail cost the city $62.5 million to build and yielded a $1.01 billion increase in property values adjacent to the trail. Urban Land Institute, 2016  - Active Transportation and Real Estate

Trails in the Miami Valley of Ohio attract about 90,000 visitors who spend $13 million on goods and services related to their use of the trails every year. Miami Valley Regional Planning Commission, 2013  - Miami Valley Trail User Survey Report

Each kilometer cycled in Denmark produces an estimated benefit of 24 cents for all of society; each kilometer driven, meanwhile, costs society about 84 cents. Copenhagen City of Cyclists  - Copenhagen City of Cyclists: Bicycle Account 2014

A Toronto study found that customers arriving by foot and bicycle visited the most often and spent the most money per month. The Clean Air Partnership, 2010 -Bike Lanes, On-Street Parking and Business: Year 2 Report

Economic benefits of the bicycling industry and tourism

Recent research found that mountain bike visitors spend $30.2 million per year in the Nantahala and Pisgah National Forests. Resident mountain bikers in Western North Carolina spent an additional $18 million.
Outdoor Alliance, 2017  - The Nantahala and Pisgah National Forests: An economic powerhouse for western North Carolina

The Wisconsin bicycle industry brings $556 million and 3,420 jobs to the state. Bicycle Federation of Wisconsin and Wisconsin Department of Transportation  - The Economic Impact of Bicycling in Wisconsin

The quality of bicycling in the northern Outer Banks region positively impacts vacationers' planning: 12% report staying three to four days longer to bicycle; 43% report that bicycling is an important factor in their decision to come to the area; 53% report that bicycling will strongly influence their decision to return to the area in the future. North Carolina Department of Transportation Division of Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation, 2004  - The Economic Impact of Investments in Bicycle Facilities: A Case Study of the North Carolina Northern Outer Banks

Congestion and environmental impacts of short car trip replacement with micromobility modes (2022)

Electric bicycles and cargo bikes—Tools for parents to keep on biking in auto-centric communities? (2021)

E-bikes and their capability to reduce car CO2 emissions (2021)

E-Bike And Classic Bicycle-Related Traumatic Brain Injuries Presenting To The Emergency Department (2021)

Do people who buy e-bikes cycle more? (2020)

Adaptive Bike Share: Expanding Bike Share to People with Disabilities and Older Adults (2020)

Electric Bike-share in the Sacramento Region is Replacing Car Trips and Supporting More Favorable Attitudes Towards Bicycling (2020)

Investigating the Influence of Dockless Electric Bike-share on Travel Behavior, Attitudes, Health, and Equity (2020)

Electric Assisted Bikes (E-bikes) Show Promise in Getting People out of Cars (2019)

E-bikes on Public Lands: A Survey of E-bike Users in Colorado (2020)

Safety of e-bikes compared to conventional bicycles: What role does cyclists’ health condition play? (2020)

Perceptions of Conflict Surrounding Future E-Bike Use on the Arizona Trail (2020)

Speeds of Young E-Cyclists on Urban Streets and Related Risk Factors: An Observational Study in Israel (2020)

E-bike carbon savings – how much and where? (2020)

GoCycle research shows owning an e-bike makes you healthier, happier and less likely to use your car (2020)

Evaluation of the potential of classic and electric bicycle commuting as an impetus for the transition towards environmentally sustainable cities: A case study of the university campuses in Liege, Belgium (2020)

E-bike safety: A review of Empirical European and North American Studies (2019)

Pedal-Assist Mountain Bikes: A Pilot Study Comparison of the Exercise Response, Perceptions, and Beliefs of Experienced Mountain Bikers (2019)

Mountain bikers attitudes and perceptions of eMTBS (electric-mountain bikes) (2019)

Physical activity of electric bicycle users compared to conventional bicycle users and non-cyclists: Insights based on health and transport data from an online survey in seven European cities (2019)

The E-bike Potential: Estimating the Effect of E-bikes on Person Miles Travelled and Greenhouse Gas Emissions (2019)

How E-bike Incentive Programs are Used to Expand the Market (2019)

Health Benefits of electrically-assisted cycling: a systematic review (2018)

Effect of E-Bike Versus Bike Commuting on Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Overweight Adults: A 4-Week Randomized Pilot Study (2018)

The Safety of E-Bikes in the Netherlands (2018)

A North American Survey of Electric Bicycle Owners (2018)

Physical activity when riding an electric-assisted bicycle (2017)

Cycling was never so easy! An analysis of e-bike commuters’ motives, travel behavior and experiences using GPS-tracking and interviews (2017)

Comparing physical activity of pedal-assist electric bikes with walking and conventional bicycles (2017)

E-bikes in the Mainstream: Reviewing a Decade of Research (2016)

Evaluation of Electric Bike Use at Three Kaiser Permanente NW Employment Centers in Portland Metro Region (2016)

Pedelecs as a physically active transportation mode (2016)

Using naturalistic data to assess e-cyclist behavior (2016)

Risky riding: naturalistic methods comparing safety behavior from conventional bicycle riders and electric bike riders (2015)

Electric Bicycles: Public Perceptions & Policy. Results and analysis of a national survey of American bicyclists (2014)

Freight Tricycle Operations in New York City (2014)

e-BikeSAFE: A naturalistic cycling study to understand how electrical bicycles change cycling behaviour and influence safety (2013)

A comparative health and safety analysis of electric-assist and regular bicycles in an on-campus bicycle sharing system (2013)

Jefferson County Open Space Department (CO) electric bike study presentation, brochure, and visitor survey results.

City of Boulder (CO) e-bike pilot project

Fruita (CO) eMTB Study on User Perceptions and one page overview (2017 with the BLM)

Survey of land managers on eMTBs (2015, with IMBA)

eMTB trail resource study (2015, with IMBA) and associated fact sheet

Comprehensive library of e-bike research on the Light Electric Vehicle Education + Research Initiative website

Recent research from Portland State University found that e-bikes encourage new people to ride, gets those who already ride to ride more often, and people feel safer when riding e-bikes than standard bikes. E-bikes are replacing car trips as well. Results indicated that e-bike rides replaced 1,778 motor vehicle miles (average of 9.3 miles per trip) just within the last three trips reported by respondents.
MacArthur J., 2017  - National Electric Bike Owner Survey

Results and analysis of a national survey of American bicyclists. McLeod, K., 2015  - How people currently perceive electric bicycles and how these new types of bicycles might fit into our work.

A 2013 study from the Netherlands explored how crashes and near-crashes are different for e-bikes as compared to traditional bikes. Dozza, M., et al, 2013  - e-bikeSAFE: a naturalistic cycling study to understand how electric bicycles change cycling behavior and influence safety

A review of e-bike classifications and regulations and an exploration of conflicts between e-bikes and other vehicles found that as e-bike users increase, so do issues with vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians. MacArthur, J. and Kobel, N., 2014  - Regulations of e-bikes in North America

In a 2015 survey, League of American Bicyclists members agree that e-bikes have positive aspects. More than 80% of respondents indicated that they agreed or somewhat agreed that electric bicycles can be used by older people and people with physical challenges, functionally replace cars for a wide variety of trips, offer transportation options to people who can’t drive, expand the number of people using bicycles, get more people biking more often and make family bicycling more accessible. McLeod, K., 2015  - Electric bicycles: public perceptions & policy

A study of bike sharing users in Knoxville, Tennessee found that e-bike riders exhibit nearly identical safety behavior as regular bike riders. Langford, B., et al., 2015  - Risky riding: Naturalistic methods comparing safety behavior from conventional bicycle riders and electric bike riders, Accident; analysis and prevention

If 20% of short car trips were replaced by bicycle trips in Milwaukee and Madison, Wisconsin, it would prevent 57,405 tons of carbon dioxide from being emitted, a value of $1.2 million. Grabow, M., et al., 2010  - Valuing Bicycling's Economic and Health Impacts in Wisconsin, January 2010

When car travel restrictions reduced morning traffic by 23% during the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, ozone concentrations decreased 28% and acute care visits for asthma decreased 41%. Friedman, M., et al., 2001  - Impact of Changes in Transportation and Commuting Behaviors During the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on Air Quality and Childhood Asthma, Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(7):897

A San Francisco Bay Area study found that increasing biking and walking from 4 to 24 minutes a day on average would reduce cardiovascular disease and diabetes by 14% and decrease GHGE by 14%. Maizlish, N. et al 2012  - Health Cobenefits and Transportation-Related Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the San Francisco Bay Area

When the complete life cycle of the following modes are taken into account, the carbon emissions are approximately: Bicycle, 21 g CO2/passenger/km traveled Electric-assist bicycle, 22 g CO2/passenger/km traveled Passenger car, 271 g CO2/passenger/km traveled Bus, 101 CO2/passenger/km traveled. European Cyclists' Federation, 2011  - Cycle more often 2 cool down the planet: Quantifying CO2 savings of cycling

A recent study of Barcelona's bike sharing program, Bicing, found that the health benefits of using the system outweigh the risks by a ratio of 77 to one. The study also estimated that Bicing reduces carbon dioxide emissions by more than 9,000 metric tons every year.
Rojas-Rueda, D., et al., 2011  - The health risks and benefits of cycling in urban environments compared with car use: health impact assessment study, BMJ 2011;343:d4521

The transportation sector is responsible for 71% of all U.S. petroleum use. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2010  - Energy Information Administration Monthly Energy Review, U.S. Department of Energy, in Transportation Statistics Annual Report 2010, 143

43% of Denver bike sharing service, B-cycle, members said they used the bikes to replace car trips. Denver B-cycle, 2010  - Denver B-cycle finishes successful first season with 102,000 B-cycle rides

Unnecessary vehicle idling in New York City costs drivers $28 million a year, causes as much smog-forming pollution as 9 million large trucks driving from the Bronx to Staten Island, and wastes the gasoline equal to 40,000 cars driving from Midtown to JFK. Burgess, E., et al., 2009  - Idling Gets You Nowhere: The health, environmental and economic impacts of engine idling in New York City, Environmental Defense Fund

There are 800 million car parking spaces in the U.S., totaling 160 billion square feet of concrete and asphalt. The environmental impact of all car parking spaces adds 10 percent to the CO2 emissions of the average automobile. Chester, M., et al., 2010  - Parking infrastructure: energy, emissions, and automobile life-cycle environmental accounting, Environmental Research Letters, 5

A NASA analysis found that motor vehicles are the greatest contributor to atmospheric warming because they release pollutants and greenhouse gases that promote warming, while emitting few aerosols that counteract it. NASA, 2010  - Road Transportation Emerges as Key Driver of Warming

Increasing the mode share of all trips made by bicycling and walking from 12% to 15% could lead to fuel savings of 3.8 billion gallons a year and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 33 million tons per year. This is equivalent to replacing 19 million conventional cars with hybrids. Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, 2008  - Active Transportation for America

The air quality improvement and reduced greenhouse gas emissions due to bicycling in Wisconsin is worth more than $90 million every year. Grabow, M., et al., 2010  - Valuing Bicycling's Economic and Health Impacts in Wisconsin, January 2010

If 20% of Madison, Wisconsin commuters biked to work, it would save 16,687 tons of carbon dioxide emissions, a value of $366,577. If 20% of Milwaukee commuters biked to work, it would save 40,718 tons of carbon dioxide emissions, a value of $821,282. Grabow, M., et al., 2010  - Valuing Bicycling's Economic and Health Impacts in Wisconsin, January 2010

A 10 cent per gallon increase in the gasoline tax would reduce carbon emissions from vehicles in the United States by about 1.5%.
Davis, L., and L. Kilian, 2009  - Estimating the effect of a gasoline tax on carbon emissions, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 14685

A reduction in carbon dioxide emissions through an increase in biking and walking for transportation has greater health benefits for a population than from the increased use of lower-emission motor vehicles. An increase in active transportation is estimated to reduce 500 fatalities per million inhabitants in cities such as Delhi and London. Woodcock, J., et al., 2009  - Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: urban land transport, Lancet, 374, 1930-43

Bicycle traffic in Copenhagen prevents 90,000 tons of CO2 from being emitted annually. City of Copenhagen, 2010  - Bicycle Account, 2010

More CO2 is emitted by the United States' transportation sector than any other nation's entire economy, except for China. Greene, D., and Schafer, A., 2003  - in Pedroso, M., 2008, Safe Routes to School: Steps to a Greener Future

A 5% increase in the walkability of a neighborhood is associated with a per capita 32.1% increase in active travel, 6.5% fewer miles driven, 5.6% fewer grams of NOx emitted, and 5.5% fewer grams of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted. Frank, L., et al., 2006  - Many pathways from land use to health: Associations between neighborhood walkability and active transportation, body mass index, and air quality, Journal of the American Planning Association, 72, 75-8

20 billion extra pounds of CO2 are released annually due to overweight and obesity in the US. Jacobson, S., and D. King, 2009  - Measuring the potential for automobile fuel savings in the US: The impact of obesity, Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 14, 6-13

Bicyclists in Philadelphia ride 260,000 miles daily, saving 47,450 tons of CO2 from being emitted by cars each year. Bicycle Coalition of Greater Philadelphia, 2008  - Double Dutch: Bicycling Jumps in Philadelphia

A 40% obese population requires 19% more food energy, resulting in an extra 0.4-1.0 Giga tonnes of CO2 emissions per year (for a population of 1 billion). Edwards, P., and I. Roberts, 2009  - Population adiposity and climate change, International Journal of Epidemiology

If 5% of New Yorkers commuting by private car or taxi switched to biking to work, they could save 150 million pounds of CO2 emissions per year, equivalent to the amount reduced by planting a forest 1.3 times the size of Manhattan. Transportation Alternatives, 2008  - Rolling Carbon: Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Commuting in New York City

Half of U.S. schoolchildren are dropped off at school in the family car. If 20% of those living within two miles of school were to bike or walk instead, it would save 4.3 million miles of driving per day. Over a year, that saved driving would prevent 356,000 tons of CO2 and 21,500 tons of other pollutants from being emitted. Pedroso, M., 2008  - Safe Routes to School: Steps to a Greener Future

Between 2003 and 2007, bike commuting in Minneapolis increased 100%. Since 2000, bike crashes have declined 20% on average every year. Bike Walk Twin Cities in Bike.Walk.Move.org, 2011  - Infographic highlights biking, walking in Twin Cities, November 1, 2011

Cities with high bicycling rates tend to have lower crash rates for all road users. Marshall, W., and N. Garrick, 2011  - Evidence on why bike-friendly cities are safer for all road users, Environmental Practice, 13, 1

In Salt Lake City, bicycling increased 27 percent from 2010 to 2011, thanks in part to a 50-mile bikeway expansion. Office of the Mayor, Salt Lake City, 2011  - Second Annual Bike Count Shows Big Jump in Cyclists, Office of the Mayor, 1 November 2011

After New York City installed a protected bike lane on Columbus Avenue, bicycling increased 56 percent on weekdays, crashes decreased 34 percent, speeding decreased, sidewalk riding decreased, traffic flow remained similar, and commercial loading hours/space increased 475 percent. New York City Department of Transportation, 2011  - Columbus Avenue parking-protected bicycle path preliminary assessment

Red light compliance on a protected bike lane in Chicago was observed to be 81% in 2013, compared to 31% before the protected lane was installed. City says Dearborn bike signals keeping cyclists in line, Chicago Tribune, June 10, 2013  - City says Dearborn bike signals keeping cyclists in line, Chicago Tribune, June 10, 2013

Cities around the U.S. have found that protected bike lanes increase bicycle ridership, reduce motor vehicle speeding, reduce crashes and improve people?s feelings of safety on those streets. Chicago Department of Transportation, July 2012  - Protected Bike Lanes Fact Sheet

After the installation of a protected bike lane in New York City, injuries to all street users decreased by 58% and retail sales increased by as much as 49% (compared to a 3% increase in sales citywide). Measuring the Street: New Metrics for 21st Century Streets, 2012  - Measuring the Street: New Metrics for 21st Century Streets, 2012

Sixty percent of people in England who are able to ride a bike are deterred from cycling because they feel it's unsafe to cycle on roads. More than half said they would start riding or ride more often if there were more cycle paths. Thornton, A., et al., 2010  - Climate Change and Transport Choices, Department of Transport

A survey of Australian adults found that three in five have access to a bike, but many don't ride at all or as much as they want to due to road and safety issues. Respondents said that separated bike paths would encourage them to start riding at all or more often. Cycling Promotion Fund, 2011  - Riding a Bike for Transport: 2011 Survey Findings

Bicycling in New York City increased 8% between 2010 and 2011, 102% since 2007, and 289% compared to 2001. During the same time, safety increased for all road users. New York City Department of Transportation, 2011  - NYC DOT Announces Commuter Biking has Doubled in the Last Four Years...""

When protected bike lanes are installed in New York City, injury crashes for all road users (drivers, pedestrians, and cyclists) typically drop by 40% and by more than 50% in some locations. Wolfson, H., 2011  - Memorandum on Bike Lanes, City of New York, Office of the Mayor, 21 March 2011

A study of 690 bicycling injuries in Canada showed that cycle tracks had the lowest risks. Teschke, K., et. al., 2012  - Route Infrastructure and the Risk of Injuries to Bicyclists: A Case-Crossover Study, American Journal of Public Health

The safest bicycle routes in Vancouver, BC, and Toronto were found to be cycletracks on major streets, local streets with traffic diversion, and off-street bike paths. Teschke, K. et al., 2012  - Route Infrastructure and the Risk of Injuries to Bicyclists, American Journal of Public Health, Volume 102

One year after the installation of a protected bike lane in downtown Long Beach, a city survey found an increase in walking and bicycling traffic and a decrease in the number of bicycle and car crashes. City of Long Beach 2013  - Broadway and Third Street Protected Bikeway Study

People wait for red lights 94% of the time when bicycling in Portland, according to a study of more than 2,000 intersection videos. Thompson, S. R., 2013  - 94% of bike riders wait a red lights, study finds; BikePortland.org, June 25, 2013

Between 36% and 77% of cars are speeding on non-freeway streets, according to federal research. Transportation Research Board, Texas Transportation Institute, 2003  - Design Speed, Operating Speed and Posted Speed Practices, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, 2003

In multiple studies of rail-to-trail conversions, crime and other nuisances decreased or remained the same after the trail was built. Rails to Trails Conservancy, 1998  - Rail-Trails and Safe Communities: The Experience on 372 Trails

In a survey of Portland residents, those people who are interested in cycling but concerned about their safety reported that they would be much more comfortable in a physically separated bike lane than in a painted bike lane. Dill, J., and McNeil, N., 2012  - Four Types of Cyclists? Testing a Typology to Better Understand Bicycling Behavior and Potential (Working paper)

A review of 23 studies on bicycling injuries found that bike facilities (e.g. off-road paths, on-road marked bike lanes, and on-road bike routes) are where bicyclists are safest. Reynolds, C., et al., 2009  - The impact of transportation infrastructure on bicycling injuries and crashes: a review of the literature, Environmental Health, 8:47

In a survey of bicycling visitors to North Carolina's northern Outer Banks region, nearly two-thirds indicated that they felt safer riding on bicycling facilities, more than 75% felt that additional bicycle facilities should be built, and nine out of ten strongly agreed that state and/or federal tax dollars should be used to build more bicycle facilities. North Carolina Department of Transportation Division of Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation, 2004  - The Economic Impact of Investments in Bicycle Facilities: A Case Study of the North Carolina Northern Outer Banks

Major streets without bike facilities are where the most bike crashes happen, followed by minor streets without facilities, bike paths, and then bike lanes. Moritz, W., 1997  - Survey of North American bicycle commuters: Design and aggregate results, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1578, 91-101

Bicycle safety improvements attract proportionately more people to bicycling than automobile safety improvements (i.e. a 10% increase in safety results in a greater than 10% increase in the share of people bicycle commuting). Noland, R., 1995  - Perceived risk and modal choice: Risk compensation in transportation systems, Accident Analysis & Prevention, 27, 503-521

A national survey found that bike lanes were available for less than 5% of bike trips. National Complete Streets Coalition  - The Benefits of Complete Streets 6: Complete streets fight climate change!""

There is a direct correlation between feelings of personal safety and the number and percentage of weekly trips taken by bike. Inavero Institute for Service Research, 2009  - Bicycling Perceptions and Experiences in Oregon and Southwest Washington, presented to the Bicycle Transportation Alliance, September 8, 2009

A review of 23 studies on transportation infrastructure and bicyclist safety concluded that bicycle-specific facilities reduce crashes and injuries among cyclists. Reynolds, C., et al., 2009  - The impact of transportation infrastructure on bicycling injuries and crashes: a review of the literature, Environmental Health, 8, 47

When the city of Seattle removed car lanes and added bike lanes to its Stone Way North street, the volume of cyclists increased 25%, motor traffic on adjacent streets declined 12-34%, speeding decreased 80%, and collisions dropped 14%. City of Seattle Department of Transportation  - Stone Way N Rechannelization: Before and After Study

A study found that separated bike paths have better air quality than traditional bike lanes. Kendrick, C., et al., 2010 in Maus, J., 2010  - The impact of bicycle characteristics on bicyclists exposure to traffic-related particulate matter, in press, in Study: Separated bikeways mean better air quality for bikers, walkers

A study found that bicycling on separated facilities like cycle tracks is safer than riding on streets without bicycle facilities. Cyclists were also 2.5 times more likely to ride on the cycle tracks than on the streets. Lusk, A., et al., 2010  - Risk of injury for bicycling on cycle tracks versus in the street, Injury Prevention, December 1, 2010

75 percent of Portland and San Francisco residents who own bikes but ride infrequently are very" or "extremely" concerned about safety while riding." North research agency, 2013  - Selling Biking: A new report on the swing voters of the street

The installation of many miles of new bike lanes in New York City did not lead to an increase in bike crashes, despite the increase in the number of cyclists. Chen, L., et al., 2011  - Evaluating the safety effects of bicycle lanes in New York City, American Journal of Public Health, November 17, 2011

80 percent of people who live near a protected bike lane project believe it increased safety on the street. Monsere, C., et al., 2014  - Lessons from the Green Lanes (National Institute for Transportation and Communities)

96 percent of people using protected bike lanes believe they increased safety on the street. Monsere, C., et al., 2014  - Lessons from the Green Lanes (National Institute for Transportation and Communities)

When Chicago added a protected lane and bike-specific traffic signals to Dearborn Street, stoplight compliance on bicycles immediately rose from 31 percent to 81 percent. Chicago Department of Transportation, 2013  - City says Dearborn bike signals keeping cyclists in line

Where protected lanes were installed in New York and Washington D.C., the number of bikes on sidewalks immediately fell by an average of 56 percent. NYCDOT and DDOT, 2010-2014  - Tired of Cyclists Riding on the Sidewalk? Build More Bike Lanes

Because they shorten crossing distances, control turning conflicts and reduce traffic weaving, New York City's protected bike lanes reduced injury rates for people walking on their streets by 12 to 52 percent. NYCDOT, 2013  - It turns out that protected bike lanes are fantastic for walking safety, too

Protected bike lanes reduce bike-related intersection injuries by about 75 percent compared to comparable crossings without infrastructure. Harris et al, 2013  - Comparing the effects of infrastructure on bicycling injury at intersections and non-intersections using a case?crossover design." Injury Prevention"

Kids who bike or walk to recreation sites (parks, playgrounds, etc.) use them more often. The safer it is to bike or walk to play sites, the more likely it is that kids will bike or walk there. Grow, H., et al., 2008  - Where are youth active? Roles of proximity, active transport, and built environment, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40, 2071-2079

In a California study, children who passed by completed Safe Routes to School projects were more likely to show increases in active travel to school compared to children who didn't pass projects (15% vs 4%). Boarnet, M, et al., 2005  - Evaluation of the California Safe Routes to School legislation: urban form changes and children's active transportation to school, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28, 134-40

Children are less likely to bike or walk to school when there is a busy road barrier en route to school, or when parents believe that there are no lights or crossings for their child to use. Timperio, A., et al., 2006  - Personal, family, social, and environmental correlates of active commuting to school, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 30, 45-51

An evaluation of California's Safe Routes to School projects found that five of 10 selected projects were successful at increasing perceived safety, safety-related behaviors, and the number of children bicycling and walking to school. Boarnet, M, et al., 2005  - California's Safe Routes to School program: Impacts on walking, bicycling, and pedestrian safety, Journal of the American Planning Association, 71, 301-317

Over the width of one traffic lane, cycling and walking can move five to ten times more people than driving. Ekoster, J., et al., 1999  - in Implementing Complete Streets I: Costs of complete streets""

High school girls who have numerous parks, schools, and other physical activity facilities in their neighborhood are significantly more likely to report getting vigorous physical activity than those who don't have any. Pate, R., et al., 2008  - Physical Activity and Neighborhood Resources in High School Girls, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34, 413-419

Pre-adolescent girls who live near multi-use trails get 5% more physical activity and have 1.4% lower body mass indexes than those who don't live near a trail. Evenson, K., 2007  - Girls' perception of neighborhood factors on physical activity, sedentary behavior, and BMI, Obesity, 15, 430-45

In 2009, 88 percent of U.S. children's bike-related deaths occurred in the street, up from 38 percent in 1990 and 47 percent in 2005. Mehan, T., et al., 2009  - Bicycle related injuries among children and adolescents in the United States, Clinical Pediatrics, 48.2, 166-73

Children are more likely to bike or walk to school when there are recreational facilities and bike paths nearby. Ziviani, P., et al., 2009  - Environmental correlates of children's active transportation: a systematic literature review, Health & Place, 15, 827-40

Young teens who live in neighborhoods where they can safely bike and walk to school and other destinations are significantly less likely to be obese. Priedt, R., 2010  - Neighborhood planning could help more kids avoid obesity, HealthDay News, 3 June 2010

A study of Safe Routes to School programs in four states found that active travel to school increased by 37% after implementation of the programs. Moudon, A. V.; Stewart, O. 2012  - Moving Forward: Safe Routes to School Progress in Five States, July 2012

Employees are less likely to cycle to work if their employer provides free car parking, and more likely to cycle to work if their employer provides bike parking and showers.
Mid-Atlantic Universities Transportation Center, 2009  - Trends and Determinants of Cycling in the Washington, D.C., Region

Bicycling is growing the fastest in large cities like Chicago, Minneapolis, New York, San Francisco, and Portland, OR?at least doubling since 1990. These cities have seen a boom in bicycling because they have consciously worked to grow bicycling. Cities, like Portland, that have implemented a comprehensive range of efforts, including infrastructure, programs, and policies to promote cycling are seeing the best results; in Portland, cycling levels grew six-fold. Pucher, J., et al., 2011  - Bicycling renaissance in North America? An update and re-appraisal of cycling trends and policies, Transportation Research A, 45, in press

People who live near multi-use trails are 50% more likely to meet physical activity guidelines and 73-80% more likely to bicycle. Huston et al., Pierce et al., and Moudon et al.  - in Active Transportation: Making the Link from Transportation to Physical Activity and Obesity, Active Living Research research brief, Summer, 2009

One study of cities across the US estimated that for every 1% increase in the length of on-street bicycle lanes, there is a 0.31% increase in bicycle commuters. Dill, J., and T. Carr, 2003  - Bicycling commuting and facilities in major U.S. cities: If you build them, commuters will use them, Transportation Research Record, 1828, 116-123

Multi-use trails have been shown to be particularly beneficial in promoting physical activity among women and people in lower-income areas. Brownson, R., et al., 2000  - Promoting physical activity in rural communities: Walking trails access, use, and effects, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 18, 235-241

A survey of college students revealed that both non-bicycle commuters and bike commuters say that bicycle lanes, trails, and paths would encourage them to ride a bike (or ride more often) to campus. Gulash, A., and K. Clifton, 2009  - The influence of individual perceptions and bicycle infrastructure on the decision to bike, Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting 2009, Paper #09-3349

Areas near new bicycle facilities showed considerably more of an increase in bicycle commuting than areas farther away. Krizek, K., et al., 2009  - Analyzing the effect of bicycle facilities on commute mode share over time, Journal of Urban Planing and Development, 135, 66-73

A study of Portland, OR businesses with nearby bike corrals found that the top five perceived benefits were: 86% Help to promote sustainability; 84% Enhance the street and neighborhood identity; 77% Increase transportation options for employees and patrons; 67% Increase foot and bike traffic; 53% Increase the visibility of businesses from the street. Business owners with nearby bike corrals also reported that one-quarter of their customers are bicyclists. More than two-thirds said this share has been increasing more rapidly over time. Meisel, D., 2010  - Bike Corrals: Local Business Impacts, Benefits, and Attitudes

After two streets in Minneapolis were converted to be more bicycle friendly, bike traffic increased 43%, total vehicle crashes decreased, traffic efficiency was maintained, and parking revenues remained consistent. City of Minneapolis, 2010  - Hennepin and 1st avenues two-way conversion leads to fewer crashes, better access

Fifty-seven percent of Americans say the design of neighborhood streets is very important in helping them get physical activity. Americans over 65, African-Americans, and Hispanics were more likely than most to say their neighborhood street environment is important. Carlson, S., et al., 2011  - Public Support for Street-Scale Urban Design Practices and Policies to Increase Physical Activity, Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 8(Suppl 1), S125-S13

In Washington, DC, the highest rates of bike commuting tend to be correlated with those neighborhoods where the city has invested in bike facilities. Pitingolo, R., 2011  - DC cycling concentrated in Northwest and Capitol Hill, Greater Greater Washington, 1 March 2011

A report of the four Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program communities found: 16 million miles were bicycled or walked that would have otherwise been driven in 2012; The number of bicyclists increased 49 percent on average between 2007 and 2010; The share of trips taken by bicycle increased 36 percent; Driving mode share decreased 3 percent; Additional biking and walking trips saved the communities $6.9 million by reducing the economic cost of mortality. Federal Highway Administration, 2012  - Report to the U.S. Congress on the outcomes of the Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program SAFETEA-LU Section 1807

More than one third of people surveyed on Illinois trails spent money in local restaurants or bars as part of their trip, and just under one third reported using the trail frequently, 21 or more times in the past year. Trails for Illinois, 2013  - Making Trails Count.

There is little correlation between population density and cycling rate. Hembrow, D., 2011  - Population density vs. cycling rate for a range of cities, A View from the Cycle Path, 28 February 2011

In large US cities where bicycling is growing, bicycling growth is highly concentrated in central cities, but it is still very low in most suburbs. Pucher, J., et al., 2011  - Bicycling renaissance in North America? An update and re-appraisal of cycling trends and policies, Transportation Research A, 45, in press

After the BIXI bike sharing system was implemented in Montreal, individuals who lived within 1km of a station were more likely to cycle for transportation. Fuller, D., et al., 2011  - Evaluating the impact of implementing a public bike share program on utilitarian cycling: The case of BIXI in Montreal, Canada, 2011 Active Living Research Annual Conference presentation abstract

Americans with nearby biking routes are more likely to participate in outdoor activities than those who don't have nearby biking routes (58% versus 47%). Outdoor Industry Association, 2011  - Outdoor Recreation Participation Report 2011

Bicycling in Minneapolis, Minnesota increased 47% from 2007-2011. From 2010-2011, the city expanded its on-street bikeway network by 75%. City of Minneapolis Public Works Department, 2012  - 2011 City of Minneapolis Bicycling Account

Cities with more bike paths and lanes have significantly higher bike commuting rates. Buehler, R., and J. Pucher, 2012  - Cycling to work in 90 large American cities: new evidence on the role of bike paths and lanes, Transportation, 39, 409-432

From 2006-2011, bicycling in San Francisco increased 71 percent. From 2010-2011, it increased 7 percent, making up 3.5 % of all trips in the city. The greatest growth in bicycling came on Market Street, which has green, protected bikeways. On Market Street, bicycling increased 115% from 2006, and 43% from 2010. San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency, 2012  - 2011 Bicycle Count Report

A study found large increases in bicycling ridership in New Orleans neighborhood after the installation of new bike lanes. Parker, K., et. al., 2013  - Effect of Bike Lane Infrastructure Improvements on Ridership in One New Orleans Neighborhood, Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 45-1, 101-107

Due to recent increases in local bicycling infrastructure, the Twin Cities has one of the nation's highest rates of women bicyclists, between 37-45%. Reeves, H. 2012  - Spokes & soles // As infrastructure improves, more Twin Cities women bike, Southwest Journal, 11 June 2012

In 2012, less than 2% of federal transportation funding went to sidewalks, bike lanes, and bike paths. Yet, a Princeton Survey found strong bipartisan support (83%) for maintaining or increasing funding. National Poll: Americans Support Funding for Sidewalks and Bikeways: 2012 Survey Findings  - National Poll: Americans Support Funding for Sidewalks and Bikeways: 2012 Survey Findings

New York City has found that the rate of expansion of their bicycle network corresponds to the rate of growth in cycling the following year. New York City DOT 2013  - Cycling in the City: An Update on NYC Cycling Counts

People living within a half-mile of a bike path are at least 20% more likely to bicycle at least once a week, compared to people living slightly farther away from the path. Vernez-Moudon, et al., 2005  - in Pucher, J., et al., 2009, Inrastructure, Programs and Policies to Increase Bicycling

Among the 50 largest US metropolitan areas, the five that spend the most on bicycle and pedestrian facilities invested seven times as much per capita ($1.54) as the five lowest-spending metro areas ($0.21). McCann, B., and S. Handy, 2009  - The Regional Response to Federal Funding for Bicycle and Pedestrian Projects, UC Davis Sustainable Transportation Center, August 2009

Bicycles represent 13% of all vehicles on four of Portland's bicycle-friendly Willamette River bridges. City of Portland Office of Transportation, 2008  - Portland Bicycle Counts 2008

In Seville, an 80-mile network of protected bike lanes boosted biking from 0.6 percent to 7 percent of trips in six years. London Cycling Campaign, 2012  - Cycling increased tenfold in Seville after construction of miles of bike tracks.

In Hangzhou, China, where 84 percent of main and secondary roads separate bikes from cars, 44 percent of middle school parents who own cars (and 62 percent of those who don't) ride a bike at least once a week. Lusk et al, 2014  - Gender and used/preferred differences of bicycle routes, parking, intersection signals, and bicycle type: Professional middle class preferences in Hangzhou, China." Journal of Transport & Health."

In the two U.S. cities that first started building modern protected bike lanes, New York and Washington D.C., bike commuting doubled from 2008 to 2013. US Census  - NYC and DC, protected lane pioneers, just doubled biking rates in 4 years

62 percent of people who live near protected lane projects would be more likely to ride a bicycle if motor vehicles and bicycles were physically separated by a barrier. Monsere, C., et al., 2014  - Lessons from the Green Lanes (National Institute for Transportation and Communities)

The average protected bike lane sees bike counts increase 75 percent in its first year alone. Monsere, C., et al., 2014  - Lessons from the Green Lanes (National Institute for Transportation and Communities)

Intersections in Montreal with protected bike lanes saw 61 percent more bike traffic than comparable intersections with no bike infrastructure. The Journal of Transport and Land Use, 2013  - Spatial modeling of bicycling activity at signalized intersections

A survey of San Francisco's Polk Street found that only 15 percent of people on the street arrived by car. SF Municipal Transportation Agency, 2013  - SF Municipal Transportation Agency, 2013

On D.C.'s Pennsylvania Avenue protected bike lane, bicycle volumes increased 200 percent after the facilities were installed. District Department of Transportation, 2012  - District Department of Transportation Bicycle Facility Evaluation

NYC's Prospect Park West protected bike lane saw a 190 percent increase in weekday ridership. NYC DOT, 2012  - Prospect Park West: Traffic Calming & Bicycle Path

After a protected bike lane was installed on Chicago's Kinzie Street: Bicycle ridership on increased 55 percent, according to morning rush hour counts; Forty-one percent of respondents changed their usual route to take advantage of the new lane; Bicyclists accounted for a majority of all eastbound traffic (53 percent) and more than one third (34 percent) of total street traffic during a CDOT traffic count conducted during morning rush hour in August 2011. Chicago DOT, 2011  - Initial Findings: Kinzie Street Protected Bike Lane

After buffered bike lanes were installed on Philadelphia's Spruce and Pine streets, bike traffic increased 95 percent and the number of people biking on the sidewalks fell 22 percent. Bicycle Coalition of Greater Philadelphia, 2009  - Bicycle usage up 95% on Spruce and Pine bike lanes

A poll of New York City residents found that 60 percent support bike lanes, 64 percent see more New Yorkers biking in the next five years, and 76 percent want to increase or maintain the number of bike lanes. Lisberg, A., 2012  - Bike lanes will be old news for new mayor, survey says, City & State, 13 March 2012

A survey of Toronto residents found that 72 percent support protected bike lanes. Rider, D., 2011  - 65% of Torontonians say no to road tolls; 72% want bike lanes, Thestar.com, 3 June 2011

A survey of Portland, Oregon, protected bike lane users found that 70 percent of respondents thought the lane made cycling safer and easier. Motorists generally thought it didn't make driving any less convenient or slower. Only three percent of cyclists didn't use the protected lane, compared to before it was installed, when 12 percent of riders rode in the street instead of in the bike lane. Monsere, C., et al., 2011  - Evaluation of Innovative Bicycle Facilities: SW Broadway Cycle Track & SW Stark/Oak Street Buffered Bike Lanes

Since the 1990s the city of Cambridge, Mass., has installed 37 miles of bike lanes and paths. From 2002-2006, the number of cyclists increased 70%. City of Cambridge  - in Menino pedals for cycle-friendly city: Boston to unveil its first dedicated bike lanes, May 13, 2008, M. Levinson, The Boston Globe

Since 2007, 140 miles of new bicycle routes have been added to New York City's on-street bicycle network. In that time, commuter cycling grew 35%. New York City Department of Transportation, 2008  - Bicycle Screenline Count

Despite the fact that cyclists breathe two to three times more air than motorists, motorists breathe about 60% more carbon monoxide and significantly more pollutants than cyclists. Van Wijnen, V., et al., 1995  - The exposure of cyclists, car drivers and pedestrians to traffic-related air pollutants, International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 67, 187-93

The benefits of increased physical activity from shifting from driving to bicycling (3 to 14 months gained) outweigh the effects of  increased inhaled air pollution (0.8 to 40 days lost) and increased traffic accidents (5 to 9 days lost). de Hartog, J., et al., 2010  - Do the health benefits of cycling outweigh the risks?, Environmental Health Perspectives, 30 June 2010

Car spoilers tilted high in the air can increase the exhaust reaching the head height of cyclists and pedestrians by as much as 57 percent compared to car spoilers tilted down. McNabola, A., 2011  - Spoiling air pollution dispersion: A numerical investigation of exhaust plume dispersion from cars with rear spoilers, Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 16, 4, 296-301

Bicycling to school improves children's cardiorespiratory fitness. Borrestad, L., et. al., 2012  - Experiences from a randomised controlled trial on cycling to school: Does cycling increase cardiorespiratory fitness?, Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 7 March 2012

A study found that separated bike paths have better air quality than traditional bike lanes. Kendrick, C., et al., 2010 in Maus, J., 2010  - The impact of bicycle characteristics on bicyclists exposure to traffic-related particulate matter, in press, in Study: Separated bikeways mean better air quality for bikers, walkers, BikePortland.org

Employees are less likely to cycle to work if their employer provides free car parking, and more likely to cycle to work if their employer provides bike parking and showers. Mid-Atlantic Universities Transportation Center, 2009  - Trends and Determinants of Cycling in the Washington, D.C., Region

Urban cyclists are exposed to less accumulated air pollution than bus commuters. Hertel, O., et al., 2008  - A proper choice of route significantly reduces air pollution exposure?A study on bicycle and bus trips in urban streets, Science of the Total Environment, 389, 58-70

Cycling and walking commuters have significantly lower levels of exposure to harmful pollutants like benzene compared with car commuters and significantly lower levels of pollutant NO2 than bus commuters. Chertok, M., et al., 2004  - Comparison of air pollution exposure for five commuting modes in Sydney?car, train, bus, bicycle, and walking, Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 15, 63-67

Cyclists are exposed to less pollution than taxi or bus passengers. Kaur, S., et al., 2006  - Exposure visualisation of ultrafine particle counts in a transport microenvironment, Atmospheric Environment, 40, 386-398

On the same urban route, car drivers were exposed to more airborne pollution than cyclists, despite the cyclists' higher respiration rates. Rank, J., et al., 2001  - Differences in cyclists and car drivers exposure to air pollution from traffic in the city of Copenhagen, The Science of the Total Environment, 279, 131-36

Kids who ride a school bus inhale up to a million times more vehicle emissions than the average person outside the bus. Marshall, J., and E. Behrentz, 2005  - Vehicle self-pollution intake fraction: Children's exposure to school bus emissions, Environmental Science and Technology, 39, 2559-2563

Bicycling for transportation vs. regular exercise

Why ride to work? A new study finds that biking to work burns as much fat as spending 40 minutes at the gym five days a week. As a bonus, you don't have to pay for a gym membership! Quist, JS., et al, 2017  - Effects of active commuting and leisure-time exercise on fat loss in women and men with overweight and obesity: a randomized controlled trial.

New research demonstrates that daily bike commuting also delivers measurable health benefits. Compared to non-active commuting, and walking, commuting by bike is associated with the lowest risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer.  Celis-Morales, C., et al, 2017  - Association between active commuting and incident cardiovascular disease, cancer, and mortality: prospective cohort study.

Bicycle commuters report a higher quality of life and greater satisfaction with their health than public transportation users, walkers, and motor vehicle users. Crane, M., Rissel, C., Greaves, S., Gebel, K., 2015  - Correcting bias in self-rated quality of life: an application of anchoring vignettes and ordinal regression models to better understand QoL differences across commuting modes

Commuters to McGill University in Montreal were more satisfied with their commute if they cycled than if they drove or took transit ? even in winter. Willis, D., Manaugh, K., El-Geneidy, A., 2013  - Uniquely Satisfied: Exploring Cyclists? Trip Satisfaction, Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, Volume 18

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